Redoubt bibliography: all known references that deal with Redoubt.

"Volcanic eruption plumes and subsequent drifting ash clouds from North Pacific volcanoes have caused delays in flight operations nationwide and substantial damage to aircraft and equipment. Volcanic ash also has caused difficulties in Alaskan communities, ranging from property damage to health hazards. This operating plan provides an overview of multiple agency integrated operations in response to the threat of volcanic ash affecting Alaska, and an agency-by-agency description of roles and responsibilities in such events. A cohesive, well coordinated response will result in the flow of timely and consistent information to those at risk."

Madden, John, Murray, T.L., Carle, W.J., Cirillo, M.A., Furgione, L.K., Trimpert, M.T., and Hartig, Larry (signatories), 2008, Alaska interagency operating plan for volcanic ash episodes, 52 p.
full-text PDF : 907 KB

Since 1988, the Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) has been monitoring volcanic activity across the state, conducting scientific research on volcanic processes, producing volcano-hazard assessments, and informing both the public and emergency managers of volcanic unrest. Below are some examples of the activity at Alaska's volcanoes that have held the attention of AVO staff.

Schaefer, J.R., and Nye, Chris, 2008, The Alaska Volcano Observatory - 20 years of volcano research, monitoring, and eruption response: Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys, Alaska GeoSurvey News, NL 2008-001, v. 11, n. 1, p. 1-9, available at http://wwwdggs.dnr.state.ak.us/pubs/pubs?reqtype=citation&ID=16061 .
ADGGS website with link to PDF
full-text PDF on AVO's server : 5.68 MB

The Alaska Volcano Observatory was founded in 1988 after the eruptions at Cook Inlet's Augustine Volcano in 1986 caused significant disruptions to passenger jet travel to Anchorage and south-central Alaska. In 1986 few tools were available for scientists in Alaska to warn safety officials and the public of the size and location of Augustine's ash clouds that threatened to damage passenger aircraft. Residents of Homer and other coastal cities in south-central Alaska faced significant uncertainty about what would happen next at the volcano and what kind of risks their communities faced from Augustine Volcano.

University of Alaska Fairbanks Geophysical Institute, 2008, 20th anniversary of the Alaska Volcano Observatory: University of Alaska Geophysical Institute pamphlet, 2 p.
full-text PDF : 3 MB

A 5.6-m-long lake sediment core from Bear Lake, Alaska, located 22km southeast of Redoubt Volcano, contains 67 tephra layers deposited over the last 8750 cal yr, comprising 15% of the total thickness of recovered sediment.

Schiff, C.J., Kaufman, D.S., Wallace, K.L., Werner, A., Ku, T.L., and Brown, T.A., 2008, Modeled tephra ages from lake sediments, base of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska: Quaternary Geochronology, v. 3, p. 56-67.

Fish and fishing communities are iconic symbols of Alaska. Volcanoes, earthquakes, and tsunamis also stand out as processes that define or shape the Alaska landscape. Alaska has numerous fishing ports that regularly rank in the top 10 ports for commercial landings by weight and value in the United States.

Zimmerman, C.E., Neal, C.A., and Haeussler, P.J., 2008, Natural hazards, fish habitat, and fishing communities in Alaska: American Fisheries Society Symposium, v. 64, p. 375-388.
full-text PDF : 1.83 MB

Swanson, S.E., and Kearney, C.S., 2008, Anhydrite in the 1989-1990 lavas and xenoliths from Redoubt Volcano, Alaska: Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 175, n. 4, p. 509-516.

Beget, James, Gardner, Cynthia, and Davis, Kathleen, 2008, Volcanic tsunamis and prehistoric cultural transitions in Cook Inlet, Alaska: Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research v, 176, p. 377-386, doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2008.01.034 .

Payne, Richard, Blackford, Jeffrey, and van der Plicht, Johannes, 2008, Using cryptotephras to extend regional tephrochronologies: an example from southeast Alaska and implications for hazard assessment: Quaternary Research, v. 69, n. 1, p. 42-55.

Volcano monitoring is conducted in two general modes: a forecasting mode before and between eruptions and an alerting mode when eruptive activity is detected. For the aviation sector, reliable eruption detection and rapid alerting are paramount to mitigate risks to en-route aircraft from encounters with airborne volcanic ash. While similar methods for monitoring seismicity, deformation, gas flux, and thermal changes are used for both forecasting and alerting, there are some differences between the two modes. Additional techniques used in the alerting mode include video surveillance, near-field infrasonic pressure sensors, lightning detectors, airborne infrared cameras, visual observations, satellite-based multi-spectral sensors, and weather radar.

Guffanti, Marianne, and Ewert, John, 2007, Overview of volcano monitoring for eruption forecasting and alerting: Fourth International Workshop on Volcanic Ash, World Meterological Organization (WMO) in close collaboration with the International Civil Aviation Organziation (ICAO) and the Civil Aviation Authority of New Zealand, Rotorua, New Zealand, 26-20 March, 2007, 5 p., available at http://www.caa.govt.nz/Volcanic_Ash_Workshop/Papers/VAWS4WP0302.pdf .
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Tephra-fall deposits from Cook Inlet volcanoes were detected in sediment cores from Tustumena and Paradox Lakes, Kenai Peninsula, Alaska, using magnetic susceptibility and petrography. The ages of tephra layers were estimated using 21 14C ages on macrofossils. Tephras layers are typically fine, gray ash, 1-5 mm thick, and composed of varying proportions of glass shards, pumice, and glass-coated phenocrysts. Of the two lakes, Paradox Lake contained a higher frequency of tephra (0.8 tephra/100 yr; 109 over the 13,200-yr record). The unusually large number of tephra in this lake relative to others previously studied in the area is attributed to the lake's physiography, sedimentology, and limnology. The frequency of ash fall was not constant through the Holocene.

de Fontaine, C.S., Kaufman, D.S., Anderson, R.S., Werner, Al, Waythomas, C.F., and Brown, T.A., 2007, Late Quaternary distal tephra-fall deposits in lacustrine sediments, Kenai Peninsula, Alaska: Quaternary Research, v. 68, p. 64-78, doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2007.03.006.

Redoubt Volcano, Alaska poses significant volcanic hazard to the Cook Inlet region and overlying flight paths. During and following the most recent eruption in 1989–1990 the Alaska Volcano Observatory deployed up to 10 seismometers to improve real-time monitoring capabilities at Redoubt and continues to produce an annual earthquake catalog with associated arrival times for this volcano. We compute a three-dimensional P wave velocity model using double-difference tomography combined with waveform cross-correlation techniques to identify families of similar earthquakes and increase earthquake location precision at Redoubt.

DeShon, H. R., Thurber, C.H., and Rowe, Charlotte, 2007, High-precision earthquake location and three-dimensional P wave velocity determination at Redoubt Volcano, Alaska: Journal of Geophyical Research, v. 112, article B07312, doi:10.1029/2006JB004751.

A methodology to systematically rank volcanic threat was developed as the basis for prioritizing volcanoes for long-term hazards evaluations, monitoring, and mitigation activities.

Ewert, John, 2007, System for ranking relative threats of U.S. volcanoes: Natural Hazards Review, v. 8, n. 4, p. 112-124.

This report presents gas emission rates from data collected during numerous airborne plume-measurement flights at Alaskan volcanoes since 1995. These flights began in about 1990 as means to establish baseline values of volcanic gas emissions during periods of quiescence and to identify anomalous levels of degassing that might signal the beginning of unrest. The primary goal was to make systematic measurements at the major volcanic centers around the Cook Inlet on at least an annual basis, and more frequently during periods of unrest and eruption.

Doukas, M.P., and McGee, K.A., 2007, A compilation of gas emission-rate data from volcanoes of Cook Inlet (Spurr, Crater Peak, Redoubt, Iliamna, and Augustine) and Alaska Peninsula (Douglas, Fourpeaked, Griggs, Mageik, Martin, Peulik, Ukinrek Maars, and Veniaminof), Alaska, from 1995-2006: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2007-1400, 13 p., available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1400/ .
USGS website with link to PDF
full-text PDF on AVO server : 281 KB

The National Volcano Early Warning System (NVEWS) is a proposed national-scale effort by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Volcano Hazards Program and its affiliated partners in the Consortium of U.S. Volcano Observatories (CUSVO) (http://www.cusvo.org) to ensure that volcanoes are monitored at a level commensurate with the threats they pose. Roughly half of the Nation's 169 young volcanoes are dangerous because of the manner in which they erupt and the communities and infrastructure within their destructive reach. Most U.S. volcanoes are located on sparsely populated Federal lands, but it is the threat to communities and infrastructure downstream and downwind, including to military and commercial aviation, that drives the need to properly monitor volcanic activity and provide forecasts and notifications of expected hazards.

Ewert, John, Guffanti, Marianne, Cervelli, Peter, and Quick, James, 2006, The National Volcano Early Warning System (NVEWS): U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet FS 2006-3142, 2 p., available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2006/3142 .
PDF on USGS server : 1 MB

Although hornblende reaction rims are widely used as a tool for evaluating magma ascent during volcanic eruptions, very few studies constrain the manner in which they form. This study investigates the influence of magma ascent path on the formation of hornblende reaction rims. To do this, we conducted isothermal (840 °C) decompression experiments using dacite pumice samples erupted in December 1989 from Redoubt volcano, Alaska. Experiments were first held within the hornblende stability field determined through phase equilibria experiments for 3 to 5 days before being decompressed to different pressures ranging from 100 to 2 MPa for 1 to 30 days before being quenched.

Browne, B.L., and Gardner, J.E., 2006, The influence of magma ascent path on the texture, mineralogy, and formation of hornblende reaction rims: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 246, n. 3-4, p. 161-176.

"NVEWS - a National Volcano Early Warning System - is being formulated by the Consortium of U.S. Volcano Observatories (CUSVO) to establish a proactive, fully integrated, national-scale monitoring effort that ensures the most threatening volcanoes in the United States are properly monitored in advance of the onset of unrest and at levels commensurate with the threats posed. Volcanic threat is the combination of hazards (the destructive natural phenomena produced by a volcano) and exposure (people and property at risk from the hazards)."

Ewert, J.W., Guffanti, Marianne, and Murray, T.L., 2005, An assessment of volcanic threat and monitoring capabilities in the United States: framework for a National Volcano Early Warning System NVEWS: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report OF 2005-1164, 62 p.
full-text PDF : 2.90 MB

The Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) monitors the more than 40 historically active volcanoes of the Aleutian Arc. Of these, 24 were considered monitored in real time with short-period seismic instrument networks as of the end of 2003 (figs. 1, 2) (Dixon and others, 2004). The AVO core monitoring program also includes daily analysis of satellite imagery, observation over flights, and compilation of pilot reports and reports from local residents and mariners. In 2003, AVO responded to eruptive activity or suspected volcanic activity at or near 10 volcanic centers (fig. 1; tables 1, 2): Wrangell, Redoubt, Iliamna, Augustine, Mageik, Veniaminof, Pavlof, Emmons Lake (Hague), Shishaldin, and Akutan volcanoes. In addition to responding to eruptive activity at Alaska volcanoes, AVO assisted in the disseminaation of information for the Kamchatka Volcanic Eruption Response Team (KVERT) about the 2003 activity of 6 Russian volcanoes: Sheveluch, Klyuchevskoy, Bezymianny, Karymsky, Alaid, and Chikurachki volcanoes (fig. 22; tables 3, 4). Due to prevailing wind directions, erupting Kamchatkan, Kurile Island, and Alaskan volcanoes pose a serious potential threat to aircraft in the North Pacific (fig. 3).

McGimsey, Robert G., Neal, Christina A., and Girina, Olga, 2005, 2003 volcanic activity in Alaska and Kamchatka: Summary of events and response of the Alaska Volcano Observatory: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2005-1310, 62 p., http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2005/1310/.
website with link to PDF
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Airborne ash probability distribution (AAPD) maps have been generated to show the distribution of airborne volcanic ash in the North Pacific (NOPAC) region by simulating volcanic eruption clouds from 22 of the 100 most historically active volcanoes in the region. The PUFF ash-dispersion model was run daily using archived wind field data between 1994-1995 and 1997-2001 for low and high aircraft flight levels. Subsequent statistics are generated representing the distribution of simulated airborne ash at 6- and 24-h intervals, defining the regions most likely to contain airborne ash and the direction and distance a volcanic ash cloud may propagate from a given volcano. The AAPD maps show the extent of ash from a given volcano can encompass all of Alaska, most of the North Pacific Ocean, portions of northwestern North America, regions as far south as 358N, regions over the western Arctic Ocean, and portions of eastern Russia.

Papp, K.P., Dean, K.G., and Dehn, J., 2005, Predicting regions susceptible to high concentrations of airborne volcanic ash in the North Pacific region: Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 148, no. 3-4, p. 295-314, doi: 10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2005.04.020.

The primary objectives of the seismic program are the real-time seismic monitoring of active, potentially hazardous, Alaskan volcanoes and the investigation of seismic processes associated with active volcanism. This catalog presents the calculated earthquake hypocenter and phase arrival data, and changes in the seismic monitoring program for the period January 1 through December 31, 2004.

Dixon, J.P., Stihler, S.D., Power, J.A., Tytgat, Guy, Estes, Steve, Prejean, Stephanie, Sanchez, J.J., Sanches, Rebecca, McNutt, S.R., and Paskievitch, John, 2005, Catalog of earthquake hypocenters at Alaskan volcanoes: January 1 through December 31, 2004: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2005-1312, 74 p., available online at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2005/1312/.
website with links to PDF and data files

In the discussion of lava dome formation, viscosity of magma plays an important role. Measurements of viscosity of magmas in field and laboratory are briefly summarized.

Yokoyama, Izumi, 2005, Growth rates of lava domes with respect to viscosity of magma: Annals of Geophysics, v. 48, n. 6, p. 957-971.

"The Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO), a cooperative program of the U.S. Geological Survey, the Geophysical Institute of the University of Alaska Fairbanks, and the Alaska Division of Geological and Geophysical Surveys, has maintained seismic monitoring networks at historically active volcanoes in Alaska since 1988 (Power and others, 1993; Jolly and others, 1996; Jolly and others, 2001; Dixon and others, 2002; Dixon and others, 2003). The primary objectives of this program are the near real time seismic monitoring of active, potentially hazardous, Alaskan volcanoes and the investigation of seismic processes associated with active volcanism. This catalog presents the calculated earthquake hypocenter and phase arrival data, and changes in the seismic monitoring program for the period January 1 through December 31, 2003."

Dixon, J. P., Stihler, S. D., Power, J. A., Tytgat, Guy, Moran, S. C., Sanchez, J. J., McNutt, S. R., Estes, Steve, and Paskievitch, John, 2004, Catalog of earthquake hypocenters at Alaskan volcanoes: January 1 through December 31, 2003: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report OF 2004-1234, 69 p.
website with links to PDF and data tar file
full-text PDF : 12.3 MB

"Recent explosive eruptions at some of Alaska's 41 historically active volcanoes have significantly affected air traffic over the North Pacific, as well as Alaska's oil, power, and fishing industries and local communities. Since its founding in the late 1980s, the Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) has installed new monitoring networks and used satellite data to track activity at Alaska's volcanoes, providing timely warnings and monitoring of frequent eruptions to the aviation industry and the general public. To minimize impacts from future eruptions, scientists at AVO continue to assess volcano hazards and to expand monitoring networks."

Brantley, S. R., McGimsey, R. G., and Neal, C. A., 2004, The Alaska Volcano Observatory - Expanded monitoring of volcanoes yields results: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet FS 2004-3084, 2 p.
full-text HTML
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"Between October 12, 1989 and December 31, 2002, the Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) located 162 deep long-period (DLP) events beneath 11 volcanic centers in the Aleutian arc. These events generally occur at mid- to lower-crustal depths (10-45 km) and are characterized by emergent phases, extended codas, and a strong spectral peak between 1.0 and 3.0 Hz. Observed wave velocities and particle motions indicate that the dominant phases are P- and S-waves. DLP epicenters often extend over broad areas (5-20 km) surrounding the active volcanoes. The average reduced displacement of Aleutian DLPs is 26.5 cm2 and the largest event has a reduced displacement of 589 cm2 (or ML 2.5). Aleutian DLP events occur both as solitary events and as sequences of events with several occurring over a period of 1-30 min."

Power, J.A, Stihler, S.D., White, R.A., and Moran, S.C., 2004, Observations of deep long-period (DLP) seismic events beneath Aleutian Arc volcanoes: 1989-2002: Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 138, p. 243-266.

"We present measurements of the whole scattering matrix as a function of the scattering angle at a wavelength of 632.8 nm in the scattering angle range 3-174 of randomly oriented particles taken from seven samples of volcanic ashes corresponding to four different volcanic eruptions: the 18 May 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption, the 1989-1990 Redoubt eruption, and the 18 August and 17 September 1992 Mount Spurr eruptions. The samples were collected at different distances from the vent. The samples studied contain large mass fractions of fine particles and were chosen to represent ash that could remain in the atmosphere for at least hours or days."

Munoz, O., Volten, H., Hovenier, J.W., Veihelmann, B., van der Zande, W.J., Waters, L.B.F.M., and Rose, W.I., 2004: Scattering matrices of volcanic ash particles of Mount St. Helens, Redoubt, and Mount Spurr volcanoes: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 109, 16 p., doi: 10.1029/2004JD004684.

"The Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO), a cooperative program of the U.S. Geological Survey, the Geophysical Institute of the University of Alaska Fairbanks, and the Alaska Division of Geological and Geophysical Surveys, has maintained seismic monitoring networks at historically active volcanoes in Alaska since 1988 (Power and others, 1993; Jolly and others, 1996; Jolly and others, 2001; Dixon and others, 2002). The primary objectives of this program are the seismic monitoring of active, potentially hazardous, Alaskan volcanoes and the investigation of seismic processes associated with active volcanism. This catalog presents the basic seismic data and changes in the seismic monitoring program for the period January 1, 2002 through December 31, 2002. Appendix G contains a list of publications pertaining to seismicity of Alaskan volcanoes based on these and previously recorded data."

Dixon, J. P., Stihler, S. D., Power, J. A., Tytgat, Guy, Moran, S. C., Sanchez, John, Estes, Steve, McNutt, S. R., and Paskievitch, John, 2003, Catalog of earthquake hypocenters at Alaskan volcanoes: January 1 through December 31, 2002: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report OF 03-0267, 58 p.
website with links to PDFs, data tar file
full-text PDF : 7.3 MB

"The Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO), a cooperative program of the U.S. Geological Survey, the Geophysical Institute of the University of Alaska Fairbanks, and the Alaska Division of Geological and Geophysical Surveys, has maintained seismic monitoring networks at potentially active volcanoes in Alaska since 1988 (Power and others, 1993; Jolly and others, 1996; Jolly and others, 2001). The primary objectives of this program are the seismic surveillance of active, potentially hazardous, Alaskan volcanoes and the investigation of seismic processes associated with active volcanism. This catalog reflects the status and evolution of the seismic monitoring program, and presents the basic seismic data for the time period January 1, 2000, through December 31, 2001."

Dixon, J. P., Stihler, S. D., Power, J. A., Tytgat, Guy, Estes, Steve, Moran, S. C., Paskievitch, John, and McNutt, S. R., 2002, Catalog of earthquake hypocenters at Alaskan volcanoes: January 1, 2000 through December 31, 2001: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report OF 02-0342, 56 p.
webpage with links to PDFs, data tar file, ASCII text
full-text PDF : 5 MB

Schaefer, Janet, and Nye, C. J., 2002, Historically active volcanoes of the Aleutian Arc: Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys Miscellaneous Publication MP 0123, unpaged, 1 sheet, scale 1:3,000,000.
MrSID map sheet : 3.3 MB
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Volcanoes are the source of a great variety of seismic signals that behave differently from events on earthquake faults. Nearly every recorded volcanic eruption has been preceded by an increase in earthquake activity beneath or near the volcano, and accompanied and followed by varying levels of seismicity.

McNutt, S.R., 2002, Volcano seismology and monitoring for eruptions: in International Handbook of Earthquake and Engineering Seismology, v. 81A, p. 383-406.

"The sun was still low on the Alaska horizon late in the morning of December 15, 1989, as the 747-400 jumbo jet carrying 245 people from Amsterdam began its approach into Anchorage International Airport. As the plane descended through 26,000 ft into the regional cloud blanket over Talkeetna, day became night, and an ominous silence gripped the cabin as all four engines automatically shut down and gritty ash and sulfurous gas filled the air. The pilots had descended into a dense ash cloud produced a few hours earlier by an explosive eruption from Redoubt Volcano, 105 miles west of Anchorage. Fortunately, after gliding powerless for 8 frightful minutes and falling nearly 12,000 ft-to within 2,000 ft of the ground-disaster was averted when the engines were restarted and the plane landed successfully in Anchorage (Casadevall, 1994). The eruption of Redoubt Volcano and its impact on aircraft safety ushered in a new era of hazard assessment and volcano monitoring in Alaska."

McGimsey, G., 2001, Redoubt volcano and the Alaska Volcano Observatory, 10 years later: in Gough, L. P. and Wilson, F. H., (eds.), Geological studies in Alaska by the U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper PP 1633, p. 5-12.
full-text PDF : 3.3 MB

"The Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO), a cooperative program of the U.S. Geological Survey, the Geophysical Institute of the University of Alaska - Fairbanks, and the Alaska Division of Geological and Geophysical Surveys, has maintained a seismic monitoring program at potentially active volcanoes in Alaska since 1988 (Power and others, 1993; Jolly and others, 1996). The primary objectives of this program are the seismic surveillance of active, potentially hazardous, Alaskan volcanoes and the investigation of seismic processes associated with active volcanism."

Jolly, A. D., Stihler, S. D., Power, J. A., Lahr, J. C., Paskievitch, John, Tytgat, Guy, Estes, Steve, Lockheart, A. D., Moran, S. C., McNutt, S. R., and Hammond, W. R., 2001, Catalog of earthquake hypocenters at Alaskan volcanoes: January 1, 1994 through December 31, 1999: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report OF 01-0189, 22 p.
website with links to PDFs, tar file
full-text PDF : 552 KB
appendix B PDF : 2 MB
phase arrival information (compressed tar file) : 14.5 MB

"More than 40 active volcanoes occur in Alaska. This report summarizes historical data on those volcanoes, using information drawn from the more thorough and comprehensive U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Open-File Report 98-582, Catalog of the Historically Active Volcanoes of Alaska."

Wallace, K. L., McGimsey, R. G., and Miller, T. P., 2000, Historically active volcanoes in Alaska, a quick reference: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet FS 0118-00, 2 p.
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Seismology is an important and effective tool for monitoring volcanoes and forecasting eruptions. In the past 2 decades there have been over 25 successful forecasts.

Sigurdsson, Haraldur, (ed.), 2000, Encyclopedia of volcanoes: San Diego, CA, Academic Press, 1417 p.

Alaska Volcano Observatory, 2000, January-February 2000: Alaska Volcano Observatory Bimonthly Report, v. 12, n. 1, 28 p.
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"Volcanic ash clouds pose a real threat to aircraft safety. The ash is abrasive and capable of causing serious damage to aircraft engines, control surfaces, windshields, and landing lights. In addition, ash can clog the pitot-static systems, which determine wind speed and altitude, and damage sensors used to fly the aircraft. To ensure aviation safety, a warning system should be capable of a 5-min response time once an eruption has been detected. Pilots are the last link in the chain of safety actions to avoid or mitigate encounters with volcanic ash. For the pilots to be effective, the warning and safety system must meet their needs."

Hufford, G.L., Salinas, L.J., Simpson, J.J., Barske, E.G., and Pieri, D.C., 2000, Operational implications of airborne volcanic ash: Bulletin of the American Meterological Society, v. 81, n. 4, p. 745-755.

"Few natural forces are as spectacular and threatening, or have played such a dominant role in shaping the face of the Earth, as erupting volcanoes. Volcanism has built some of the world's greatest mountain ranges, covered vast regions with lava (molten rock at the Earth's surface), and triggered explosive eruptions whose size and power are nearly impossible for us to imagine today. Fortunately, such calamitous eruptions occur infrequently. Of the 50 or so volcanoes that erupt every year, however, a few severely disrupt human activities. Between 1980 and 1990, volcanic activity killed at least 26,000 people and forced nearly 450,000 to flee from their homes."

Brantley, S. R., 1999, Volcanoes of the United States: U.S. Geological Survey General Interest Publication 44 p.
website with links to HTML full-text
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Alaska Volcano Observatory, 1999, January-April 1999: Alaska Volcano Observatory Bimonthly Report, v. 11, n. 1 and 2, 30 p.
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Alaska Volcano Observatory, 1999, May-August 1999: Alaska Volcano Observatory Bimonthly Report, v. 11, n. 3 and 4, 39 p.
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Alaska Volcano Observatory, 1999, September-December 1999: Alaska Volcano Observatory Bimonthly Report, v. 11, n. 5 and 6, 51 p.
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Nye, C. J., Queen, Katherine, and McCarthy, A. M., 1998, Volcanoes of Alaska: Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys Information Circular IC 0038, unpaged, 1 sheet, scale 1:4,000,000, available at http://www.dggs.dnr.state.ak.us/pubs/pubs?reqtype=citation&ID=7043 .
website with links to sheets in MrSID format

Alaska hosts within its borders over 80 major volcanic centers that have erupted during Holocene time (<10,000 years). At least 29 of these volcanic centers (table 1) had historical eruptions and 12 additional volcanic centers may have had historical eruptions. Historical in Alaska generally means the period since 1760 when explorers, travelers, and inhabitants kept written records. These 41 volcanic centers have been the source for >265 eruptions reported from Alaska volcanoes.

Miller, T. P., McGimsey, R. G., Richter, D. H., Riehle, J. R., Nye, C. J., Yount, M. E., and Dumoulin, J. A., 1998, Catalog of the historically active volcanoes of Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report OF 98-0582, 104 p.
website with PDF links
title page PDF : 52
intro and TOC PDF : 268 KB
eastern part - Wrangell to Ukinrek Maars PDF : 972 KB
central part - Chiginagak to Cleveland PDF : 2,463 KB
western part - Carlisle to Kiska PDF : 956 KB
references PDF : 43 KB

Alaska Volcano Observatory, 1998, January-April 1998: Alaska Volcano Observatory Bimonthly Report, v. 10, n. 1 and 2, 35 p.
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Alaska Volcano Observatory, 1998, May-August 1998: Alaska Volcano Observatory Bimonthly Report, v. 10, n. 3 and 4, 43 p.
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Alaska Volcano Observatory, 1998, September-December 1998: Alaska Volcano Observatory Bimonthly Report, v. 10, n. 5 and 6, 51 p.
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"Redoubt Volcano is a stratovolcano located within a few hundred kilometers of more than half of the population of Alaska. This volcano has erupted explosively at least six times since historical observations began in 1778. The most recent eruption occurred in 1989-90 and similar eruptions can be expected in the future. The early part of the 1989-90 eruption was characterized by explosive emission of substantial volumes of volcanic ash to altitudes greater than 12 kilometers above sea level and widespread flooding of the Drift River valley. Later, the eruption became less violent, as developing lava domes collapsed, forming short-lived pyroclastic flows associated with low-level ash emission. Clouds of volcanic ash had significant effects on air travel as they drifted across Alaska, over Canada, and over parts of the conterminous United States causing damage to jet aircraft. Economic hardships were encountered by the people of south-central Alaska as a result of ash fallout. Based on new information gained from studies of the 1989-90 eruption, an updated assessment of the principal volcanic hazards is now possible. Volcanic hazards from a future eruption of Redoubt Volcano require public awareness and planning so that risks to life and property are reduced as much as possible."

Waythomas, C. F., Dorava, J. M., Miller, T. P., Neal, C. A., and McGimsey, R. G., 1997, Preliminary volcano-hazard assessment for Redoubt Volcano, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report OF 97-857, 40 p., 1 plate, scale unknown.
full-text PDF : 1.76 MB
map sheet plate PDF : 5.61 MB

"Few natural forces are as spectacular and threatening, or have played such a dominant role in shaping the face of the Earth, as erupting volcanoes. Volcanism has built some of the world's greatest mountain ranges, covered vast regions with lava (molten rock at the Earth's surface), and triggered explosive eruptions whose size and power are nearly impossible for us to imagine today. Fortunately, such calamitous eruptions occur infrequently. Of the 50 or so volcanoes that erupt every year, however, a few severely disrupt human activities. Between 1980 and 1990, volcanic activity killed at least 26,000 people and forced nearly 450,000 to flee from their homes."

Brantley, S. R., 1997, Volcanoes of the United States: The Earth Scientist, v. 14, n. 4, p. 3-13.
website with links to HTML chapters

"The world's busy air traffic corridors pass over hundreds of volcanoes capable of sudden, explosive eruptions. In the United States alone, aircraft carry many thousands of passengers and millions of dollars of cargo over volcanoes each day. Volcanic ash can be a serious hazard to aviation even thousands of miles from an eruption. Airborne ash can diminish visibility, damage flight control systems, and cause jet engines to fail. USGS and other scientists with the Alaska Volcano Observatory are playing a leading role in the international effort to reduce the risk posed to aircraft by volcanic eruptions."

Neal, C. A., Casadevall, T. J., Miller, T. P., Hendley, J. W. II., and Stauffer, P. H., 1997, Volcanic ash - Danger to aircraft in the North Pacific: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet FS 30-0097, 2 p.
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Alaska Volcano Observatory, 1997, January-April 1997: Alaska Volcano Observatory Bimonthly Report, v. 9, n. 1 and 2, 51 p.
Part 1 PDF : 252 KB
Part 2 PDF : 2.8 MB
Part 3 PDF : 649 KB

Alaska Volcano Observatory, 1997, July-August 1997: Alaska Volcano Observatory Bimonthly Report, v. 9, n. 4, 31 p.
Part 1 PDF : 446 KB
Part 2 PDF : 435 KB
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Alaska Volcano Observatory, 1997, September-December 1997: Alaska Volcano Observatory Bimonthly Report, v. 9, n. 5 and 6, 17 p.
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This paper is an attempt to measure our understanding of volcano/atmosphere interactions by comparing a box model of potential volcanogenic aerosol production and removal in the stratosphere with the stratospheric aerosol optical depth over the period of 1979 to 1994. Model results and observed data are in good agreement both in magnitude and removal rates for the two largest eruptions, El Chicho´n and Pinatubo. However, the peak of stratospheric optical depth occurs about nine months after the eruptions, four times longer than the model prediction, which is driven by actual SO2 measurements. For smaller eruptions, the observed stratospheric perturbation is typically much less pronounced than modeled, and the observed aerosol removal rates much slower than expected. These results indicate several limitations in our knowledge of the volcano-atmosphere reactions in the months following an eruption. Further, it is evident that much of the emitted sulfur from smaller eruptions fails to produce any stratospheric impact. This suggests a threshold whereby eruption columns that do not rise much higher than the tropopause (which decreases in height from equatorial to polar latitudes) are subject to highly efficient self-removal processes. For low latitude volcanoes during our period of study, eruption rates on the order of 50,000 m3/s (dense rock equivalent) were needed to produce a significant global perturbation in stratospheric optical depth, i.e., greater than 0.001. However, at high (.40°) latitudes, this level of stratospheric impact was produced by eruption rates an order of magnitude smaller.

Bluth, G.J.S., Rose, W.I., Sprod, I.E., and Krueger, A.J., 1997, Stratospheric loading of sulfur from explosive volcanic eruptions: The Journal of Geology, v. 106, p. 671-683.

"Alaska is home to more than 40 active volcanoes, many of which have erupted violently and repeatedly in the last 200 years. This compact disc (CD-ROM) contains 97 digital images created from 35-mm slides scanned by a Kodak PIW film scanner. These pictures are but a small fraction of thousands taken by Alaska Volcano Observatory scientists, other researchers,and private citizens. Photographs were selected for inclusion in this collection to portray Alaska's volcanoes, to document recent eruptive activity, and to illustrate the range of volcanic phenomena observed in Alaska."

Neal, Christina, and McGimsey, Robert, 1996, Volcanoes of the Wrangell Mountains and Cook Inlet Region, Alaska-selected photographs: U.S. Geological Survey Digital Data Series DDS 0039, 1 CD-ROM.
website with links to HTML album, PDF, and individual images in a variety of formats
web browser photo album
print-resolution PDF : 21.2 MB
screen-resolution PDF : 1.8 MB
directory to slideshow pdf file
directory of small screen images (jpg)
directory of large screen images (jpg)
directory to full-resolution images (PCD format)

"Recent eruptions of volcanoes in the Cook Inlet region of south-central Alaska provide insight into the environmental and economic consequences of hydrologic processes associated with volcanic activity."

Dorava, J. M., and Waythomas, C. F., 1995, Hydrologic hazards at recently active volcanoes in the Cook Inlet Region, Alaska: in Herrman, R., (ed.), Annual summer symposium -- 1995, Water resources and environmental hazards: emphasis on hydrologic and cultural insight in the Pacific Rim, Honolulu, HI, American Water Resources Association, p. 91-98.

"Although the occurrence of lightning in volcanic eruption clouds is well documented, few attempts have been made to use lightning detection and location to monitor eruptions. Such a monitoring approach could potentially allow for the detection of an ash cloud even when meteorological conditions might prevent observations from satellites and ground-based radar. In 1990, the Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) experimented with a lightning detection system (LDS) used by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) in their forest fire program. BLM's network is configured to locate typical meteorologic lightning strikes that could potentially cause forest fires."

Paskievitch, J. F., Murray, T. L., Hoblitt, R. P., and Neal, C. A., 1995, Lightning associated with the August 18, 1992, eruption of Crater Peak vent, Mount Spurr volcano, Alaska: in Keith, T. E. C., (ed.), The 1992 eruptions of Crater Peak Vent, Mount Spurr volcano, Alaska, U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin B 2139, p. 179-182.
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"This Report of Investigations catalogs geologic field and laboratory data accumulated during Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys (DGGS) studies of middle to late Quatemary sediments in the Cook Inlet region and presents initial interpretations of these data."

Reger, R. D., Pinney, D. S., Burke, R. M., and Wiltse, M. A., 1995, Catalog and initial analyses of geologic data related to middle and late Quaternary deposits, Cook Inlet region, Alaska: Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys Report of Investigations RI 95-06, 188 p., 6 sheets, scale 1:250,000.
website with links to PDF and MrSID files

"Studies of volcanic ash particles can be used to understand problems associated with volcanic ash clouds such as aircraft engine damage, visibility, atmospheric dispersion, and deposition of ash (Heiken, this volume). By using several analytical techniques, particles can be characterized in terms of size, shape, mass, mineralogy, and chemical composition. These characteristics provide detailed information necessary to understand the nature of volcanic ash clouds."

Bayhurst, G. K., Wohletz, K. H., and Mason, A. S., 1994, A method for characterizing volcanic ash from the December 15, 1989, eruption of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska: in Casadevall, T. J., (ed.), Volcanic ash and aviation safety: proceedings of the first international symposium on volcanic ash and aviation safety, U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin B 2047, p. 13-17.
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Volcanic ash layers preserved in glacial-lacustrine sediments at Skilak Lake on the Kenai Peninsula of southcentral Alaska constitute a record of eruptions at Redoubt Volcano and other Alaskan volcanoes which affected the upper Cook Inlet area during the last 500 years. High-resolution magnetic susceptibility profiling delineates similar sequences of tephra layers in several 1-m-long lake sediment cores. Electron microprobe analyses of glass shards from the tephras indicate correlation of some ash layers with known reference tephras from the source volcanoes, while other ash layers record previously unknown prehistoric eruptions. Skilak Lake cores contain ash from the historic 1912 Katmai eruption, the 1902 Redoubt eruption, and the 1883 Mount St. Augustine eruption as well as prehistoric ash layers erupted from Crater Peak at Mr. Spurr ca. 250-350 years ago, from Redoubt Volcano at ca. 300-400 years ago and again at ca. 350-450 years ago, and a 500-year-old ash from Mount St. Augustine.

Beget, J. E., Stihler, S. D., and Stone, D. B., 1994, A 500-year-long record of tephra falls from Redoubt volcano and other volcanoes in upper Cook Inlet, Alaska: in Miller, T. P. and Chouet, B. A., (eds.), The 1989-1990 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 62, n. 1-4, p. 55-67.

Volcaniclastic deposits preserved in valleys on the flanks of Redoubt Volcano comprise a record of the volcano's postglacial eruption history. The oldest and largest deposit is the Harriet Point debris avalanche, emplaced more than 10,500 yr B.P. This debris avalanche travelled more than 30 km down the Redoubt Creek valley to Cook Inlet. About 3600 yr B.P., a massive slope failure of Redoubt Volcano produced at least two lahars that travelled 30 km down the Crescent River valley (Riehle et al., 1981 ). A series of smaller eruptions between ca. 3600-1800 yr B.P. generated additional lahars and floods that affected the upper Crescent River valley. A pyroclastic fan on the south flank of Redoubt Volcano probably also formed during this time interval.

Beget, J. E., and Nye, C. J., 1994, Postglacial eruption history of Redoubt volcano, Alaska: in Miller, T. P. and Chouet, B. A., (eds.), The 1989-1990 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 62, n. 1, p. 31-54.

Airborne measurements of sulfur dioxide emission rates in the gas plume emitted from fumaroles in the summit crater of Redoubt Volcano were started on March 20, 1990 using the COSPEC method. During the latter half of the period of intermittent dome growth and destruction, between March 20 and mid-June 1990, sulfur dioxide emission rates ranged from approximately 1250 to 5850 t/d, rates notably higher than for other convergent-plate boundary volcanoes during periods of active dome growth. Emission rates following the end of dome growth from late June 1990 through May 1991 decreased steadily to less than 75 t/d.

Casadevall, T. J., Doukas, M. P., Neal, C. A., McGimsey, R. G., and Gardner, C. A., 1994, Emission rates of sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide from Redoubt Volcano, Alaska during the 1989-1990 eruptions: in Miller, T. P. and Chouet, B. A., (eds.), The 1989-1990 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 62, n. 1, p. 519-530.

The December 1989-June 1990 eruption of Redoubt Volcano affected commercial and military air operations in the vicinity of Anchorage, Alaska. These effects were due to the direct impact of volcanic ash on jet aircraft, as well as to the rerouting and cancellations of flight operations owing to eruptive activity. Between December and February, five commercial jetliners were damaged from ash encounters. The most serious incident took place on December 15, 1989 when a Boeing 747-400 aircraft temporarily lost power of all four engines after encountering an ash cloud as the airplane descended for a landing in Anchorage.

Casadevall, T. J., 1994, The 1989-1990 eruption of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska: impacts on aircraft operations: in Miller, T. P. and Chouet, B. A., (eds.), The 1989-1990 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 62, n. 1, p. 301-316.

During the eruption of Redoubt Volcano from December 1989 through April 1990, the Alaska Volcano Observatory issued advance warnings of several tephra eruptions based on changes in seismic activity related to the occurrence of precursory swarms of long-period (LP) seismic events (dominant period of about 0.5 s). The initial eruption on December 14 occurred after 23 years of quiescence and was heralded by a 23-hour swarm of LP events that ended abruptly with the eruption. After a series of vent-clearing explosions over the next few days, dome growth began on December 21.

Chouet, B. A., Page, R. A., Stephens, C. D., Lahr, J. C., and Power, J. A., 1994, Precursory swarms of long-period events at Redoubt volcano (1989-1990), Alaska: their origin and use as a forecasting tool: in Miller, T. P. and Chouet, B. A., (eds.), The 1989-1990 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 62, n. 1, p. 95-135.

On January 8, 1990 Redoubt Volcano in Alaska erupted. A mushroom-shaped plume formed above the volcano that later drifted to the east, dropping ash on the underlying terrain. The plume was recorded on two satellite images. The images show the plume as being circular 20 minutes after the eruption, and widely dispersed 4 hours later. Digital analyses of the images reveal variations in the morphology and spectral response of the top of the plume.

Dean, Ken, Bowling, S. A., Shaw, Glenn, and Tanaka, Hiroshi, 1994, Satellite analyses of movement and characteristics of the Redoubt Volcano plume, January 8, 1990: in Miller, T. P. and Chouet, B. A., (eds.), The 1989-1990 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 62, n. 1, p. 339-352.

"On 14 December 1989, Redoubt Volcano, located 177 km southwest of Anchorage, Alaska (fig. l), erupted and expelled a huge eruption cloud composed of ash and gas to altitudes greater than 10 km (Brantley, 1990). For the next 4 months, 24 additional eruptions resulted in the deposition of ash throughout southern Alaska (Scott and McGimsey, 1991). Clouds of ash and gas from Redoubt Volcano drifted hundreds of kilometers to locations beyond Fairbanks, Delta Junction, and Glennallen."

Dean, K. G., Whiting, L., and Jiao, H., 1994, An aircraft encounter with a Redoubt ash cloud (a satellite view): in Casadevall, T. J., (ed.), Volcanic ash and aviation safety: proceedings of the first international symposium on volcanic ash and aviation safety, U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin B 2047, p. 333-339.
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Seismic activity during the December 1989 to April 1990 eruption of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, has been tracked by the Alaska Volcano Observatory using Real-time Seismic Amplitude Measurement (RSAM) and Seismic Spectral Amplitude Measurement (SSAM) systems with up to five stations. Data consist of 10-minute averages of the absolute amplitudes of seismometer output. These data have been used to test in hindsight the Materials Failure Forecast Method (FFM), which attempts to define the time of eruption with a time series for precursory phenomena whose rate of change accelerates measurably before events.

Cornelius, R. R., and Voight, Barry, 1994, Seismological aspects of the 1989-1990 eruption at Redoubt Volcano, Alaska: the Materials Failure Forecast Method (FFM) with RSAM and SSAM seismic data: in Miller, T. P., (ed.), The 1989-1990 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 62, n. 1-4, p. 469-498.

The eruptions of Redoubt Volcano between December 14, 1989 and April 26, 1990 triggered flows of snow, ice, water, sediment, and debris that traveled down the Drift River as far as its mouth, about 40 km downstream. A major explosive eruption and dome collapse on January 2, 1990 produced the largest flow. The peak discharge of this flow at a location 22 km downstream from the volcano was estimated to be between 12,000 and 60,000 m 3 per second. The estimated peak discharge of this event is more than 100 times larger than the 100-year meteorologically generated flood estimated for the Drift River.

Dorava, J. M., and Meyer, D. F., 1994, Hydrologic hazards in the lower Drift River Basin associated with the 1989-1990 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska: in Miller, T. P. and Chouet, B. A., (eds.), The 1989-1990 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 62, n. 1, p. 387-407.

More than 20 eruptive events during the 1989-1990 eruption of Redoubt Volcano emplaced a complex sequence of lithic pyroclastic-flow, -surge, -fall, ice-diamict, and lahar deposits mainly on the north side of the volcano. The deposits record the changing eruption dynamics from initial gas-rich vent-clearing explosions to episodic gas-poor lava-dome extrusions and failures. The repeated dome failures produced lithic pyroclastic flows that mixed with snow and glacial ice to generate lahars that were channeled off Drift glacier into the Drift River valley. Some of the dome failures occurred without precursory seismic warning and appeared to result solely from gravitational instability.

Gardner, C. A., Neal, C. A., Waitt, R. B., and Janda, R. J., 1994, Proximal pyroclastic deposits from the 1989-1990 eruption of Redoubt volcano, Alaska - stratigraphy, distribution, and physical characteristics: in Miller, T. P. and Chouet, B. A., (eds.), The 1989-1990 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 62, n. 1, p. 213-250.

The 1989-1990 eruption of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, provided an opportunity to compare petrologic estimates of SO2 and C1 emissions with estimates of SO2 emissions based on remote sensing data and estimates of C1 emissions based on plume sampling. In this study, we measure the sulfur and chlorine contents of melt inclusions and matrix glasses in the eruption products to determine petrologic estimates of SO2 and C1 emissions.

Gerlach, T. M., Westrich, H. R., Casadevall, T. J., and Finnegan, D. L., 1994, Vapor saturation and accumulation in magmas of the 1989-1990 eruption of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska: in Miller, T. P. and Chouet, B. A., (eds.), The 1989-1990 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 62, n. 1-4, p. 317-337.

"Volcanic ash injected into the atmosphere from the 1989-90 Redoubt eruptions became the most common and widespread hazard (Brantley, 1990) from this series of eruptions. The ash caused significant damage to property, especially aircraft, and severely disrupted normal activities in south-central Alaska, where about 60 percent of the State's population lives."

Hufford, G. L., 1994, Alaska volcano-debris-monitoring system: new technologies to support forecasting volcanic-plume movement: in Casadevall, T. J., (ed.), Volcanic ash and aviation safety: proceedings of the first international symposium on volcanic ash and aviation safety, U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin B 2047, p. 239-244.
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Determination of the precise locations of seismic events associated with the 1989-1990 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano posed a number of problems, including poorly known crustal velocities, a sparse station distribution, and an abundance of events with emergent phase onsets. In addition, the high relief of the volcano could not be incorporated into the HYPOELL1PSE earthquake location algorithm. This algorithm was modified to allow hypocenters to be located above the elevation of the seismic stations.

Lahr, J. C., Chouet, B. A., Stephens, C. D., Power, J. A., and Page, R. A., 1994, Earthquake classification, location, and error analysis in a volcanic environment: implications for the magmatic system of the 1989-1990 eruptions at Redoubt Volcano, Alaska: in Miller, T. P. and Chouet, B. A., (eds.), The 1989-1990 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 62, n. 1-4, p. 137-151.

The waning phase of the 1989-1990 eruption of Redoubt Volcano in the Cook Inlet region of south-central Alaska comprised a quasi-regular pattern of repetitious dome growth and destruction that lasted from February 15 to late April 1990. The dome failures produced ash plumes hazardous to airline traffic. In response to this hazard, the Alaska Volcano Observatory sought to forecast these ash-producing events using two approaches. One approach built on early successes in issuing warnings before major eruptions on December 14, 1989 and January 2, 1990. These warnings were based largely on changes in seismic activity related to the occurrence of precursory swarms of long-period seismic events.

Page, R. A., Lahr, J. C., Chouet, B. A., Power, J. A., and Stephens, C. D., 1994, Statistical forecasting of repetitious dome failures during the waning eruption of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, February-April 1990: in Miller, T. P. and Chouet, B. A., (eds.), The 1989-1990 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 62, n. 1, p. 183-196.

Redoubt Volcano in south-central Alaska erupted between December 1989 and June 1990 in a sequence of events characterized by large tephra eruptions, pyroclastic flows, lahars and debris flows, and episodes of dome growth. The eruption was monitored by a network of five to nine seismic stations located 1 to 22 km from the summit crater. Notable features of the eruption seismicity include :( 1 ) small long-period events beginning in September 1989 which increased slowly in number during November and early December; (2) an intense swarm of long-period events which preceded the initial eruptions on December 14 by 23 hours; ( 3 ) shallow swarms (0 to 3 km) of volcano-tectonic events following each eruption on December 15; (4) a persistent cluster of deep (6 to 10 km) volcano-tectonic earthquakes initiated by the eruptions on December 15, which continued throughout and beyond the eruption; (5) an intense swarm of long-period events which preceded the eruptions on January 2; and (6) nine additional intervals of increased long-period seismicity each of which preceded a tephra eruption.

Power, J. A., Lahr, J. C., Page, R. A., Chouet, B. A., Stephens, C. D., Harlow, D. H., Murray, T. L., and Davies, J. N., 1994, Seismic evolution of the 1989-1990 eruption sequence of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska: in Miller, T. P. and Chouet, B. A., (eds.), The 1989-1990 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 62, n. 1, p. 69-94.

Redoubt Volcano, located on the west side of Cook Inlet in south-central Alaska, erupted explosively on over 20 separate occasions between December 14, 1989 and April 2l, 1990. Fourteen lava domes were emplaced in the summit area, thirteen of which were subsequently destroyed. The eruption caused economic losses estimated at over $160,000,000 making this the second most costly eruption in U.S. history.

Miller, T. P., and Chouet, B. A., 1994, The 1989-1990 eruptions of Redoubt volcano: an introduction: in Miller, T. P. and Chouet, B. A., (eds.), The 1989-1990 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 62, n. 1, p. 1-10.

"Volcanic ash ejected into the atmosphere can cause severe problems to airplanes and to municipal and industrial facilities, as well as to people on the ground downwind from the volcano. Knowing where ash will travel is vital to mitigating its effects. If notified in time, people in the path of the ashfall can take precautionary measures as complex as shutting down portions of a power facility or as simple as canceling a dinner date. Conversely, in areas unlikely to be affected by ashfall, industry can avoid wasting resources in preparation for ash that is not traveling in their direction. In this report, we describe a method to routinely acquire predicted wind speeds and directions (trajectories) at various pressure-altitudes and to plot and display the data in a simple, easy-to-distribute format."

Murray, T. L., Bauer, C. I., and Paskievitch, J. F., 1994, Using a personal computer to obtain predicted plume trajectories during the 1989-90 eruption of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska: in Casadevall, T. J., (ed.), Volcanic ash and aviation safety: proceedings of the first international symposium on volcanic ash and aviation safety, U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin B 2047, p. 253-256.
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Redoubt Volcano is a composite cone built on continental crust at the northeast end of the Aleutian arc. Magmas erupted at Redoubt are medium-K calc-alkaline basalts, andesites, and dacites. The eruptive history of the volcano can be divided into four parts: the early explosive stage, early cone-building stage, late cone-building stage, and post-glacial stage. The most silicic products of the volcano were erupted during the early explosive stage about 0.888 Ma and include pumiceous pyroclastic flow deposits, block-and-ash flow deposits, and a dome or shallow intrusive complex.

Till, A. B., Yount, M. E., and Bevier, M. L., 1994, The geologic history of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska: in Miller, T. P. and Chouet, B. A., (eds.), The 1989-1990 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 62, n. 1, p. 11-30.

Melting of snow and glacier ice during the 1989-1990 eruption of Redoubt Volcano caused winter flooding of the Drift River. Drift glacier was beheaded when 113 to 121 × 106 m 3 of perennial snow and ice were mechanically entrained in hot-rock avalanches and pyroclastic flows initiated by the four largest eruptions between 14 December 1989 and 14 March 1990. The disruption of Drift glacier was dominated by mechanical disaggregation and entrainment of snow and glacier ice.

Trabant, D. C., Waitt, R. B., and Major, J. J., 1994, Disruption of Drift glacier and origin of floods during the 1989-1990 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska: in Miller, T. P. and Chouet, B. A., (eds.), The 1989-1990 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 62, n. 1, p. 369-385.

Ice diamict comprising clasts of glacier ice and subordinate rock debris in a matrix of ice (snow) grains, coarse ash, and frozen pore water was deposited during the eruption of Redoubt Volcano on December 15, 1989. Rounded clasts of glacier ice and snowpack are as large as 2.5 m, clasts of Redoubt andesite and basement crystalline rocks reach 1 m, and tabular clasts of entrained snowpack are as long as 10 m.

Waitt, R. B., Neal, C. A., Gardner, C. A., Pierson, T. C., and Major, J. J., 1994, Unusual ice diamicts emplaced during the December 15, 1989 eruption of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska: in Chouet, B. A. and Miller, T. P., (eds.), The 1989-1990 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 62, n. 1, p. 409-428.

On April 15, 1990 and April 21, 1990, two relatively small explosive eruptions occurred at Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, lasting about 4 and 8 minutes respectively. On both occasions the erupted material travelled as a pyroclastic flow down an ice canyon on the north flank of the volcano. Using slow-scan television recordings of the eruption and the seismic record in both the near- and far-field, we deduce that after a few minutes, the upper parts of these pyroclastic flows became buoyant and a large and hot ash cloud ascended off the flow. These thermals rose to a height of about 12 km, at which point they began to spread laterally, as umbrella clouds.

Woods, A. W., and Kienle, Juergen, 1994, The dynamics and thermodynamics of volcanic clouds: theory and observations from the April 15 and April 21, 1990 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska: in Miller, T. P. and Chouet, B. A., (eds.), The 1989-1990 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 62, n. 1, p. 273-299.

"This paper attempts to advance satellite-based volcanic cloud sensing through analysis of AVHRR data collected during the Redoubt eruptions of 1989-90. In particular, it tests a volcanic-cloud-discrimination algorithm developed by Holasek and Rose (1991) for the 1986 eruption of Augustine Volcano. Redoubt and Augustine Volcanoes, located in the Cook Inlet area of Alaska (Kienle, this volume), both erupted during the winter and early spring and have similar chemical compositions."

Schneider, D. J., and Rose, W. I., 1994, Observations of the 1989-90 Redoubt Volcano eruption clouds using AVHRR satellite imagery: in Casadevall, T. J., (ed.), Volcanic ash and aviation safety: proceedings of the first international symposium on volcanic ash and aviation safety, U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin B 2047, p. 405-418.
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The 1989-1990 eruption of Redoubt Volcano spawned about 20 areally significant tephra-fall deposits between December 14, 1989 and April 26, 1990. Tephra plumes rose to altitudes of 7 to more than 10 km and were carried mainly northward and eastward by prevailing winds, where they substantially impacted air travel, commerce, and other activities. In comparison to notable eruptions of the recent past, the Redoubt events produced a modest amount of tephra-fall deposits 1 6 X 107 to 5 × 101 o kg for individual events and a total volume (dense-rock equivalent) of about 3-5 × 107 m 3 of andesite and dacite.

Scott, W. E., and McGimsey, R. G., 1994, Character, mass, distribution, and origin of tephra-fall deposits of the 1989-1990 eruption of Redoubt volcano, south-central Alaska: in Miller, T. P. and Chouet, B. A., (eds.), The 1989-1990 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 62, n. 1, p. 251-272.

"Anchorage, Alaska is one of the focal points of intemational aviation activities. The city lies close to several active and potentially active volcanoes including Hayes, Spurr, Redoubt, Iliamna, Augustine, and Douglas along the west shore of Cook Inlet, and Wrangell Volcano to the east. In this century Spurr, Redoubt, and Augustine together have had eight significant eruptions that have spread ash over a broad area of south-central Alaska. It is necessary to establish a reliable scheme for predicting the distribution of volcanic ash fall after an eruption in order to avoid unnecessary disruptions of aircraft operations."

Tanaka, H. L., 1994, Development of a prediction scheme for volcanic ash fall from Redoubt Volcano, Alaska: in Casadevall, T. J., (ed.), Volcanic ash and aviation safety: proceedings of the first international symposium on volcanic ash and aviation safety, U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin B 2047, p. 283-291.
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"There is a range of styles of explosive volcanic eruption that can produce large convecting ash clouds and thereby inject ash high into the atmosphere. Ash can rise high into the atmosphere if the hot, erupted material can mix with and heat up a sufficient mass of air so that the bulk density of the mixture decreases below the ambient (Self and Walker, this volume). The typical ascent time of this ash to its maximum height is on the order of a few minutes; if this time is longer than the time over which the material is erupted and becomes buoyant, then the cloud will rise as a discrete volcanic thermal cloud (Wilson and others, 1978; Woods and Kienle, in press)."

Woods, A. W., and Kienle, Juergen, 1994, The injection of volcanic ash into the atmosphere: in Casadevall, T. J., (ed.), Volcanic ash and aviation safety: proceedings of the first international symposium on volcanic ash and aviation safety, U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin B 2047, p. 101-106.
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"This paper gives a brief description of aircraft-ash incidents over Cook Inlet between 1953 and 1986, before the near-fatal encounter of a Boeing 747-400 jet with a Redoubt ash plume on 15 December 1989."

Kienle, Juergen, 1994, Volcanic ash-aircraft incidents in Alaska prior to the Redoubt eruption on 15 December 1989: in Casadevall, T. J., (ed.), Volcanic ash and aviation safety: proceedings of the first international symposium on volcanic ash and aviation safety, U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin B 2047, p. 119-123.
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"This paper describes a social accounting framework designed to classify real economic costs and benefits, as well as related redistributions of economic activity associated with the eruptions of Redoubt Volcano between December 1989 and April 1990. Conceptually, we are trying to compare economic activity that would have occurred if the eruptions had not taken place with activity that actually took place. The difference between these two situations represents the net economic cost of the eruptions."

Tuck, B. H., and Huskey, Lee, 1994, Economic disruptions by Redoubt volcano: assessment methodology and anecdotal empirical evidence: in Casadevall, T. J., (ed.), Volcanic ash and aviation safety: proceedings of the first international symposium on volcanic ash and aviation safety, U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin B 2047, p. 137-140.
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Much of the six-month-long 1989-1990 eruption of Redoubt Volcano consisted of a dome-growth and destructive phase in which 14 short-lived viscous silicic andesite domes were emplaced and 13 subsequently destroyed. The life span of an individual dome ranged from 3 to 21 days and volumes are estimated at 1 X 106 to 30X 10 6 m 3. Magma supply rates to the vent area averaged about 5 X 105 m3/day for most of the dome-building phase and ranged from a high of 2.2X 106 m 3 per day initially to a low of 1.8× 105 m 3 per day at the waning stages of the eruption. The total volume of all domes is estimated to be about 90 × 106 m 3 and may represent as much as 60-70% of the volume for the entire eruption.

Miller, T. P., 1994, Dome growth and destruction during the 1989-1990 eruption of Redoubt volcano: in Miller, T. P. and Chouet, B. A., (eds.), The 1989-1990 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, Journal of Volcanology and Geophysical Research, v. 62, p. 197-212.

A commercially-available lightning-detection system was temporarily deployed near Cook Inlet, Alaska in an attempt to remotely monitor volcanogenic lightning associated with eruptions of Redoubt Volcano. The system became operational on February 14, 1990; lightning was detected in 11 and located in 9 of the 13 subsequent eruptions. The lightning was generated by ash clouds rising from pyroclastic density currents produced by collapse of a lava dome emplaced near Redoubt's summit. Lightning discharge (flash) location was controlled by topography, which channeled the density currents, and by wind direction. In individual eruptions, early flashes tended to have a negative polarity (negative charge is lowered to ground) while late flashes tended to have a positive polarity (positive charge is lowered to ground), perhaps because the charge-separation process caused coarse, rapid-settling particles to be negatively charged and fine, slow-settling particles to be positively charged.

Hoblitt, R. P., 1994, An experiment to detect and locate lightning associated with eruptions of Redoubt Volcano: in Miller, T. P. and Chouet, B. A., (eds.), The 1989-1990 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 62, n. 1-4, p. 499-517.

Measurements of air and snow constituents in the vicinity of Redoubt Volcano were made during the summer of 1990 following its major eruptive cycle. Plumes from the degassing volcano were found to have an average SO2/ HCI molar ratio of 6.43 based on two observations. Snow samples were collected up to 100 km from the volcano and chemically characterized.

Jaffe, D. A., Cerundolo, Bianca, and Kelley, Jennifer, 1994, The influence of Redoubt Volcano emissions on snow chemistry: in Miller, T. P. and Chouet, B. A., (eds.), The 1989-1990 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 62, n. 1-4, p. 359-367.

The 1989-1990 eruption of Redoubt Volcano produced medium-K calc-alkaline andesite and dacite of limited compositional range (58.2-63.4% SiO2) and entrained quenched andesitic inclusions (55% SIO2) which bear chemical similarities to the rest of the ejecta. The earliest (December 15 ) magmas are pumiceous, often compositionally banded, and the majority is relatively marie ( < 59% SIO2). The most silicic magmas of the eruption are the late December to early January domes (up to 63.4% SIO2). Subsequent magmas formed domes and rare pumices which converge on 60% SIO2.

Nye, C. J., Swanson, S. E., Avery, V. F., and Miller, T. P., 1994, Geochemistry of the 1989-1990 eruption of Redoubt Volcano: Part I. Whole-rock major- and trace-element chemistry: in Miller, T. P. and Chouet, B. A., (eds.), The 1989-1990 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 62, n. 1-4, p. 429-452.

"An eruption of Redoubt at 10:15 a.m. Alaska Standard Time (AST) produced an ash-rich eruption column that climbed to approximately 40,000 ft altitude. Wind speeds at high altitudes at the time were 100 knots from south-southwest. At 11:46 a.m., KLM flight 867 entered the volcanic ash cloud at approximately 25,000 ft altitude, 150 nautical miles northeast of Redoubt. Immediately the aircrew increased power and attempted to climb out of the ash cloud. Within 1 minute, the four engines decelerated below idle. The aircraft descended approximately 13,000 ft before the crew restarted the four engines and resumed flight to Anchorage. Even though there were no injuries to passengers, the damage to engines, avionics, and aircraft structure from this encounter was significant. Similar engine thrust loss and engine and aircraft damage was experienced by two Boeing 747 aircraft during 1982 volcanic eruptions of Galunggung Volcano in Indonesia."

Przedpelski, Z. J., and Casadevall, T. J., 1994, Impact of volcanic ash from 15 December 1989 Redoubt volcano eruption on GE CF6-80C2 Turbofan engines: in Casadevall, T. J., (ed.), Proceedings of the first international symposium on volcanic ash and aviation safety, U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin B 2047, p. 129-135.
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The mass of SO2 emitted by the 16 major explosive eruptions of Redoubt Volcano between December 1989 and April 1990 have been examined by the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) carried on the Nimbus 7 satellite. Because of low light levels during the winter months, TOMS could not detect SO2 at high northern latitudes. Thus, the major eruptions from December through February could not be monitored unless winds brought the clouds to latitudes lower than about 58°N.

Schnetzler, C. C., Doiron, S. D., Walter, L. S., and Krueger, A. J., 1994, Satellite measurement of sulfur dioxide from the Redoubt eruptions of 1989-1990: in Miller, T. P., (ed.), The 1989-1990 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 62, n. 1-4, p. 353-357.

Early stages (December 1989) of the 1989-1990 eruption of Redoubt Volcano produced two distinct lavas. Both lavas are high-silica andesites with a narrow range of bulk composition (58-64 wt.%) and similar mineralogies (phenocrysts of plagioclase, hornblende, augite, hypersthene and Fe-Ti oxides in a groundmass of the same phases plus glass). The two lavas are distinguished by groundmass glass compositions, one is dacitic and the other rhyolitic. Sharp boundaries between the two glasses in compositionally banded pumices, lack of extensive coronas on hornblende phenocrysts, and seismic data suggest that a magma-mixing event immediately preceeded the eruption in December 1989.

Swanson, S. E., Nye, C. J., Miller, T. P., and Avery, V. F., 1994, Geochemistry of the 1989-1990 eruption of Redoubt Volcano: Part II, Evidence from mineral and glass chemistry: in Miller, T. P., (ed.), The 1989-1990 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 62, n. 1-4, p. 453-468.

SSAM is a simple and inexpensive tool for continuous monitoring of average seismic amplitudes within selected frequency bands in near real-time on a PC-based data acquisition system. During the 1989-1990 eruption sequence at Redoubt Volcano, the potential of SSAM to aid in rapid identification of precursory Long-Period (LP) event swarms was realized, and since this time SSAM has been incorporated in routine monitoring efforts of the Alaska Volcano Observatory. In particular, an eruption that occurred on April 6 was successfully forecast primarily on the basis of recognizing the precursory LP activity on SSAM.

Stephens, C. D., Chouet, B. A., Page, R. A., Lahr, J. C., and Power, J. A., 1994, Seismological aspects of the 1989-1990 eruptions at Redoubt Volcano, Alaska: The SSAM perspective: Miller, T. P. and Chouet, B. A., (eds.), The 1989-1990 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 62, n. 1-4, p. 153-182.

"Volcanic ash from the 1989-90 eruptions of Redoubt Volcano disrupted aviation operations in south-central Alaska and damaged five jet passenger aircraft, including a new Boeing 747-400, which cost in excess of $80 million to repair (Steenblik, 1990). The Redoubt eruptions served to increase interest by the aviation community in volcanic hazards and made it clear that mitigating the hazards of volcanic ash to aviation safety would require the cooperation and efforts of volcanologists, meteorologists, air traffic managers, engine and airframe manufacturers, and pilots."

Casadevall, T. J., 1994, Introduction to proceedings of the first international symposium of ash and aviation safety: in Casadevall, T. J., (ed.), Volcanic ash and aviation safety: Proceedings of the first international symposium on volcanic ash and aviation safety, U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin B 2047, p. 1-6.
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"Volcanic ash is a widespread product of eruptions of volcanoes that are located around rim of the Pacific Ocean. Ash is formed by explosive fragmentation and quenching of magma (crystals +melt + gas) during an eruption. Melt in the magma is quenched to a glass when the temperature is rapidly lowered upon exposure to atmospheric conditions. The explosive character of these volcanoes is caused by the silica-rich melt, which often contains dissolved volatile components, such as H20 or SO2. Crystallization of mineral phases (e.g., plagioclase, pyroxene, hornblende, Fe-Ti oxides, etc.) gradually enriches non-crystallizing components in the melt."

Swanson, S. E., and Beget, J. E., 1994, Melting properties of volcanic ash: in Casadevall, T. J., (ed.), Volcanic ash and aviation safety: proceedings of the First international symposium on Volcanic ash and aviation safety, U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin B 2047, p. 87-92.
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"The experience gained in providing meteorological information on volcanic ash clouds to those in aeronautical operations has resulted in adjusting some procedures to accommodate requirements. This paper briefly discusses the requirements and challenges and how support will be improved, primarily through communications, in the near future."

Uecker, Jerald, 1994, The aeronautical volcanic ash problem: in Casadevall, T. J., (ed.), Volcanic ash and aviation safety: Proceedings of the first international symposium on volcanic ash and aviation safety, U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin B 2047, p. 293-296.
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Till, A. B., Yount, M. E., and Riehle, J. R., 1993, Redoubt volcano, southern Alaska: a hazard assessment based on eruptive activity through 1968: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin B 1996, 19 p., 1 sheet, scale 1:125,000.
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"Quaternary Aleutian volcanism extends for over 2,500 km, from Buldir Island on the west to Mount Hayes on the east (fig. 1). This belt of volcanic activity lies immediately north of the Aleutian trench, a convergent boundary between the North American and Pacific lithospheric plates."

Motyka, R. J., Liss, S. A., Nye, C. J., and Moorman, M. A., 1993, Geothermal resources of the Aleutian Arc: Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys Professional Report PR 0114, 17 p., 4 sheets, scale 1:1,000,000.
website with links to PDF and MrSID files

Volcanic ash consists of finely fragmented particles of rock, minerals, and aerosol droplets generally less than 2 millimeters in diameter (less than 0.063 mm diameter for fine ash) produced by explosive volcanic eruptions. Volcanic ash injected into the atmosphere to altitudes exceeding 30km (100,000 ft) may impact areas for hundreds to thousands of kilometers downwind from the volcano.

Casadevall, T. J., 1993, Volcanic ash and airports: discussion and recommendations from the workshop on impacts of volcanic ash on airport facilities: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report OF 93-0518, 52 p.
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"Such explosive eruptions have occurred somewhere on Earth about 10 times per year during the past decade (McClelland and others, 1989). Many of these explosive volcanoes occur around the Pacific "Ring of Fire" and have a direct impact on air routes around the Pacific basic (Figure 2, see page 15)."

Casadevall, T. J., 1992, Volcanic hazards and aviation safety: lessons of the past decade: Federal Aviation Administration Aviation Safety Journal, v. 2, p. 3-11.

Neal, C., and Power, J. (compilers), 1991, Alaska Volcano Observatory summary report: January 1, 1991 - February 28, 1991: Alaska Volcano Observatory bimonthly report series, 13 p.
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Neal, C. (compiler), 1991, Alaska Volcano Observatory summary report: July 1, 1991 - August 31, 1991: Alaska Volcano Observatory bimonthly report series, 15 p.

Neal, C.A. (compiler), 1991, Alaska Volcano Observatory summary report: March 1, 1991 - April 30, 1991: Alaska Volcano Observatory bimonthly report series, 19 p.

Neal, C.A. (compiler), 1991, Alaska Volcano Observatory summary report: May 1, 1991 - June 30, 1991: Alaska Volcano Observatory bimonthly report series, 8 p.

Neal, C.A. (compiler), 1991, Alaska Volcano Observatory summary report: September 1, 1991 - October 31, 1991: Alaska Volcano Observatory bimonthly report series, 7 p.

"The ancient Greeks knew that Vulcan, whom the 19th-century scholar Thomas Bulfinch would later call 'the most ill-favored of gods,' had his workshop on volcanic Mount Etna. There the huge, one-eyed Cyclops, eater of men, helped vulcan make thunderbolts for Zeus."

Steenblik, J. W., 1990, Volcanic ash - a rain of terra: Airline Pilot, v. June/July, p. 9-15.

Gardner, Cynthia, and Power, John (compilers), 1990, Alaska Volcano Observatory monthly report: December 1989 - May 1990: Alaska Volcano Observatory bimonthly report series, 98 p.

Neal, C., and Power, J. (compilers), 1990, Alaska Volcano Observatory summer report: June 1, 1990 - September 30, 1990: Alaska Volcano Observatory bimonthly report series, 38 p.

Neal, C.A., and Power, J. (compilers), 1990, Alaska Volcano Observatory fall report: October 1, 1990 - December 31, 1990: Alaska Volcano Observatory bimonthly report series, 8 p.

Volcanism and tectonism in the eastern Aleutian arc are controlled by the subduction of the Pacific plate beneath the North American plate. Worldwide earthquake data and data from local seismic networks in Cook Inlet, on the Alaska Peninsula and on Kodiak Island have defined the arcuate plate boundary and the Wadati-Benioff zone. A calc-alkaline volcanic arc of approximately 20 volcanic centers is well developed above the subduction zone.

Kienle, J., Swanson, S. E., and Pulpan, H., 1983, Magmatism and subduction in the eastern Aleutian Arc: in Shimozuru, D. and Yokoyama, I., (eds.), Arc volcanism: physics and tectonics, IAVCEI symposium, Proceedings, Tokyo and Hakone, Japan, Aug. 3l -Sept. 5, 1981, Tokyo, Terra Scientific Publishing Co., p. 191-224.

Calc-alkaline volcanism and oceanic plate subduction are intimately linked in the eastern Aleutian arc. The volcanic arc is segmented: larger caldera-forming volcanic centers tend to be located near segment boundaries. Intrasegment volcanoes form smaller stratocones. Ten of the 22 volcanoes that make up the 540 km long volcanic front in the eastern Aleutian arc have erupted in recorded history and another six show hydrothermal activity.

Kienle, Juergen, and Swanson, S. E., 1983, Volcanism in the eastern Aleutian Arc: late Quaternary and Holocene centers, tectonic setting and petrology: Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 17, n. 1-4, p. 393-432.

"A lahar is a flowing mixture of rock debris and water that originates on the flanks of a volcano or the deposit of such flows (Crandall, 1971, p. 3, following van Bemmelen, 1949).3 Lahars are either mudflows or debris flows. Sharp and Nobles (1953) defined 'debris flow' as the deposit of a rapid tlowage of loose soil and rock debris mixed with water. Varnes (1958) restricted 'mudflow' to moving debris containing at least half sand-sized and finer material. Poor sorting of mudflow materials results in high density and high transport competency, but there must be a fluid phase (claywater mixture) with sufficient strength and density to support the smaller granular constituents (Rodine, 1975). Each size range of granular constituents in turn supports the next larger range."

Riehle, J. R., Kienle, J., and Emmel, K. S., 1981, Lahars in Crescent River valley, lower Cook Inlet, Alaska: Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys Geologic Report GR 0053, 10 p.
website with link to PDF

Wilson, C. R., Nichparenko, S., and Forbes, R. B., 1966, Evidence of two sound channels in the polar atmosphere from infrasonic observations of the eruption of an Alaskan volcano: Nature, v. 211, n. 5045, p. 163-165.

"A towering column of dirty gray smoke and steam, half a mile in diameter, was boiling 15,500 to 20,000 feet into the sky above Mt. Redoubt Tuesday."

Associated Press, 1966, Mt. Redoubt boiling over, eruption visible for miles: Fairbanks Daily News-Miner, v. XLIV, n. 20, Fairbanks, Alaska, p. 1.

"Smoke billows from near the crest of Mt. Redoubt, about 130 miles southwest of Anchorage, after the 10,198-foot volcano erupted Monday in its heaviest display in years."

Associated Press, 1966, Volcanic action puts 22 on run: Fairbanks Daily News-Miner, v. XLIV, n. 21, Fairbanks, Alaska, p. 1.

"Heat from the volcanic eruption of Mt. Redoubt, a 10,197 foot mountain across the Cook Inlet from the Kenai Peninsula, melted snow and ice on the slopes and triggered a flash flood, necessitating the evacuation Tuesday night of 22 members of a seismograph crew."

Unknown, 1966, Mt. Redoubt blows top, first volcanic activity in more than 33 years: Cheechako News, v. seventh year, n. 273, Kenai, Alaska, p. 1, 9.

"Mr. and Mrs. David G. Bell, Kenai area residents presently living at Drift River across Cook Inlet, have had a ringside seat at the recent volcanic activity of Mt. Redoubt."

Unknown, 1966, Eye witness account of Mt. Redoubt: Cheechako News, v. February 18, Kenai, Alaska, p. 5.

"If Mt. Redoubt's sulphur fumes and smoke develop into a full scale volcanic eruption, Alaska can add one more volcano to its already big collection."

Unknown, 1965, Mt. Redoubt could join volcano list: Fairbanks Daily News-Miner, v. XLIII, n. 26, Fairbanks, Alaska, p. 7.

"Mount Spurr - the volcanic peak which covered Anchorage with a deep ash fall in 1953 - was reported today to be issuing a cloud of smoke and steam."

Unknown, 1965, Mount Spurr spouts steam with Redoubt: Anchorage Daily Times, v. February 2, 1965, Anchorage, Alaska, p. 1, 9.

"Steam is gushing from 11,069-foot Mt. Spurr in the rugged Alaska Range, but the U.S. Geological Survey reported Tuesday it is nothing unusual."

Associated Press, 1965, Geologists say gushing not unusual: Fairbanks Daily News-Miner, v. XLIII, n. 28, Fairbanks, Alaska, p. 9.

"A fifth fissure has opened high on the southeast wall of troubled Mt. Redoubt, 125 miles southwest of here."

Associated Press, 1965, New fissure opens on Mt. Redoubt: Fairbanks Daily News-Miner, v. XLIII, n. 29, Fairbanks, Alaska, p. 2.

"In October 1945, the War Department (now Department of the Army) requested the Geological Survey to undertake a program of volcano investigations in the Aleutian Islands and Alaska Peninsula area. The first field studies were made during the years 1946-48. The results of the first year's field, laboratory, and library work were hastily assembled as two administrative reports, and most of these data have been revised for publication in Geological Survey Bulletin 1028. Part of the early work was published in 1950 in Bulletin 974-B, "Volcanic Activity in the Aleutian Arc," and in 1951 in Bulletin 989-A, "Geology of Buldir Island, Aleutian Islands, Alaska," both by Robert R. Coats. Additionl fieldwork was done during the years 1949-54. Unpublished results of the early work and all the later studies are being incoporated as parts of Bulletin 1028. The investigations of 1946 were supported almost entirely by the Office, Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army. From 1947-55 the Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force joined to furnish financial and logistic assistance. The Geological Survey is indebted to the Office, Chief of Engineers, for its early recognition of the value of geologic studies in the Aleutian region, and to the several military departments for their support."

Wilcox, R. E., 1959, Some effects of recent volcanic ash falls with special reference to Alaska: in Investigations of Alaskan volcanoes, U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin B 1028-N, p. 409-476, 5 sheets, scale unknown.
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"The Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian Islands form one of the conspicuously arcuate lines of volcanoes that border the Pacific Ocean. The name Aleutian Range is applied to this 1,600 mile long, narrow belt of peaks reaching from Mount Spurr opposite Anchorage to the island of Attu, close to the continent of Asia."

Powers, H. A., 1958, Alaska Peninsula-Aleutian Islands: in Williams, H., (ed.), Landscapes of Alaska, Los Angeles, CA, University of California Press, p. 61-75.

Coats, R. R., 1950, Volcanic activity in the Aleutian Arc: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin B 0974-B, p. 35-49, 1 sheet, scale unknown.
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The first author to take up the subject of Alaskan volcanos systematically was Constantine Grewingk in 1850. He gathered from all previous accessible sources such as data existed on record, and his work is the classical source of such information.

Dall, W. H., 1918, Reminiscences of Alaskan volcanoes: Scientific Monthly, v. 7, n. 1, p. 80-90.

Sapper, Karl, 1917, Katalog der geschichtlichen vulkanausbruche: Strassburg, Germany, Karl J. Trubner, 358 p.

The region described in this report covers an area of about 5,150 square miles. It is situated, as is shown on figure 1 (p. 12), in southwestern Alaska, west of the southern half of Cook Inlet and north of the Alaska Peninsula. I t comprises the greater part of the drainage basins of Kvichak River, which is the outlet of Iliamna and Clark lakes flowing into Bristol Bay, and of the streams flowing into Cook Inlet from the west, south of and including Tuxedni Bay. The extreme limits of this area are bounded by parallels 59" and 60" 30' N. and meridians 152" 30' and 157" W. The nearest large town is Seward, which is about 150 miles to the east.

Martin, G. C., and Katz, F. J., 1912, A geologic reconnaissance of the Iliamna region, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin B 0485, 138 p., 2 sheets, scale 1:250,000
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"In Alaska, and especially on the Aleutian islands, active and recently extinct volcanoes are so numerous that an attempt to give a detailed record of the various reports concerning them that have been made would lead to confusion."

Russell, I. C., 1910, Volcanoes of North America: London, The Macmillan Company, 346 p.

"The majority of the active volcanoes of the present time are situated on the borders of the Pacific Ocean. They form a mighty chain, which extends from the Tierra del Fuego along the Andes to the Coast and Fairweather ranges of North America; thence crossing over, by means of the Aleutian Islands, to the peninsula of Kamschatka, and going through the Japan and Philippine Islands, it ends in Borneo and Java."

Cordeiro, F. J. B., 1910, The volcanoes of Alaska: Appalachia, v. 12, p. 130-135.

"Information has reached Juneau that sometime about New Year's day a terrific volcanic eruption occured not far from Kenai on Cook's Inlet about 70 miles about English Bay."

Unknown, 1902, Volcanic eruption at Kenai; Flames of fire from the bowels of the earth: The Alaskan, v. XVIL, Sitka, Alaska, p. 1.

"The list of shocokcs printed in 1887, and those compiled during succeeding years, contained many reported "eruptions" of mountains in the Puget Sound region. For a number of years I made it my business to apply by letter to intelligent observers in that neighborhood to determine whether MOunt Baker and the other mountains had ever certainly been known to be in eruption."

Plummer, F. G., 1898, Reported volcanic eruptions in Alaska, Puget Sound, etc., 1690-1896: in Holden, E. S., (ed.), A Catalogue of Earthquakes on the Pacific Coast 1769-1897, Smithsonian Institution Miscellaneous Collections 1087, City of Washington D.C., Smithsonian Institution, p. 24-27.

"It is very certain that volcanic activity has existed at numerous points along the northwestern coast of America from the Golden Gate northward in comparatively recent times. Less certainty exists in this newly settled region as to historical outbursts."

Becker, G. F., 1898, Reconnaissance of the gold fields of southern Alaska with some notes on general geology: U.S. Geological Survey Annual Report 0018, p. 1-86, 6 sheets, scale unknown.
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"The largest of this group is the island of Atkha. It resembles Oonalashka in shape, but its indentations are less deep and not so easily accessible. Near the north point of the island there is a volcano called the Korovinsky, nearly 5,000 feet in height, and a few miles to the south another rises to almost the same elevation."

Petroff, Ivan, 1884, The volcanic region of Alaska: in Population, Industries, and Resources of Alaska, Washington DC, Government Printing Office, p. 93-96.
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Dall, W. H., 1870, Alaska and its resources: Boston, Lee and Shepard, 627 p.

"The borders of the Pacific Ocean are studded with volcanoes and the products of volcanic activity. The volcanoes are arranged in crudely arc-shaped groups, and most of the arcs are conves toward the ocean. In addition to the bordering arcs, the Pacific contains many individual volcanic islands and a few non-arcuate groups of volcanic islands, like the Hawaiian Islands. The curving chain of volcanoes from Kiska Island near the western end of the Aleutian Islands to Mt. Spurr on the mainland constitutes one of the Pacific volcanic arcs. This report is concerned with the past activity of the volcanoes of this arc, herein called the Aleutian arc."

Coats, R. R., Past volcanic activity in the Aleutian arc: U.S. Geological Survey Volcano Investigations Report 1, 18 p.
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Kienle, Juergen (comp.), Volcano observations: Notes about volcanoes and volcanic eruptions collected, made, and stored by Juergen Kienle, on file at University of Alaska Fairbanks, Geophysical Institute, unpublished, unpaged.